Frequently Asked Questions

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Can you tell me more about PN sequences and how they are generated?

Sure. The PN in PN sequence stands for pseudonoise, which is just another name for pseudorandom binary sequence, or PRBS. Pseudorandom sequences are generated using a binary shift register with taps that are modulo-2 added together and fed back to the register's input. The name commonly used for this simple circuit is linear feedback shift register, or LFSR. The type of sequence generated by an LFSR is called a linear recursive sequence, or LRS.

What is the theory behind LFSRs and pseudorandom sequence generation?

We suggest you take a look at an article we wrote on Linear Feedback Shift Registers. It's pretty interesting and goes into a fair amount of detail on LFSR theory, as well as related topics like m-sequences and feedback tap selection. It's a pretty handy reference, and you don't need to have a Ph.D. to understand it.

How do I know what feedback taps to select in order to obtain an m-sequence?

In short, any combination of feedback taps will provide a recursive sequence, regardless of which taps you choose. However, only certain combinations of feedback taps will result in maximal-length sequences, called m-sequences. These are the longest sequences possible given a specific shift register size, and they have many desirable properties. If the register size is m stages, the length of the m-sequence will be 2^m-1. Tables of feedback sets for m-sequences are given in an article we wrote on Linear Feedback Shift Registers. We think you will find this to be a handy reference on sequence generators.

Can your PN sequence generators be used as simple PRBS Generators?

Absolutely! Our generators are PRBS generators, but with lots of bells and whistles for those who wish to use them (like developers of wireless and spread spectrum systems). But if you use only the PN Sequence output port (TTL-compatible), you're guaranteed to get a simple pseudorandom sequence. Just select the feedback taps you want and you're ready to go!

Can your PN sequence generators be used as a Data Simulators? Can they simulate data streams at baseband? What about BPSK and QPSK at RF and microwave frequencies?

Definitely, all these formats are supported! In fact, data simulation was one of the applications our engineers had in mind when they designed these generators. Our generators are standard PRBS generators that output not only TTL-level pseudorandom sequences for baseband applications, but also provide AC outputs for driving inexpensive, external modulators for wireless applications.

For wireless applications, simply attach a double-balanced mixer/modulator for BPSK simulation, or a QPSK (or I&Q) modulator for either QPSK or BPSK simulation. These mixers are readily available for prices typically less than $200. See our FAQ on mixer connections for details on using mixers with our generators. You will find it to be a snap!

The difference between using our sequence generators for PRBS data generation, or for spread spectrum generation, boils down to one simple thing -- whether or not you apply an external data source to an input port on the generator. If you do, our generator will spread it's bandwidth, thus giving you "spread spectrum." If you don't, you'll get just the pseudorandom sequence. It's as simple as that.

How do I use your PN sequence generator in a direct sequence application?

The definition of "direct sequence" is that a data-modulated carrier is multiplied by a broadband PN sequence in order to spread the data signal's bandwidth.

Having said that, the way you use our generator depends upon the type of data modulation desired. If it is PSK, which is usually the case, you simply apply the data signal to the Data Input port of the generator, where it will be modulo-2 added with the PN sequence. This is called code inversion modulation, but it can be shown that this is equivalent to first PSK modulating the data onto a carrier, and then multiplying the result with the PN sequence.

If the desired data modulation scheme isn't PSK, modulation of the data must be performed external to the generator. In such a case the Data Input port is left unused.

To modulate the carrier, simply connect the AC Output port of the generator to a double-balanced mixer. Refer to the FAQ on mixer connections for information on balanced mixers and how to use them for BPSK and QPSK modulation. It's easy!

If you're interested in QPSK modulation, be sure to read the FAQ on I&Q sequence derivation.

Our generators can also be used in receiver applications, for despreading the spread signal. Setup is virtually the same as for transmitter applications, the only exception being that the carrier signal is replaced by the received spread signal. If two of our generators are used in a transmitter/receiver application, you should consider using the Master/Slave feature of our generators to keep the two generators in perfect synchronization. See our FAQ on Master/Slave for further details.

How do I use your PN sequence generator in a frequency hopping application?

The answer to this is not as straightforward as it is for direct sequence, because the data to be hopped can be modulated into the signal in any one of numerous ways. But if we ignore the data and focus on the PN sequence, the question is much easier to answer.

Our generators include a parallel port that outputs all taps of the sequence-generating shift register. Simply connect each of these taps to the parallel inputs of a direct digital synthesizer (DDS), using proper termination techniques to avoid excessive ringing. The output frequency of the DDS, also known as a numerically controlled oscillator (NCO), will jump around in a pseudorandom fashion.

Our generators can also be used in receiver applications, for dehopping the hopped signal. Setup is virtually the same as for transmitter applications. If two of our generators are used in a transmitter/receiver application, you should consider using the Master/Slave feature of our generators to keep the two generators in perfect synchronization. See our FAQ on Master/Slave for further details.

How do I use your PN sequence generator in a receiver application?

Using our generators in receiver applications is virtually the same as using them in transmitter applications. For details, refer to our FAQ's on direct sequence applications and frequency hopping applications. For information on keeping the transmitter's and receiver's PN sequences in perfect synchronization, refer to our FAQ on the Master/Slave feature of our generators.

I know what PN sequences are. But what are all those other codes supported by your generators, like Gold, JPL, and Barker Codes?

These are other, less-commonly used codes (sequences) that have certain properties making them more valuable in some applications. For short answers to your question, look up the codes in our Spread Spectrum Glossary. If you wish, you can find detailed information on these and other codes in the Advanced Topics section of our Spread Spectrum Resources directory.

Your generators support both truncated and appended codes. What are they, and what are they used for?

You probably know that any PN sequences has a certain natural length before repeating itself. A truncated code is one where the sequence is intentionally restarted before it otherwise would on its own. On the other hand, an appended code is one where the sequence is restarted after the natural repetition occurs.

As an example, the natural length of a maximal R8 sequence is 2⁸-1 = 255 chips. With our generators you can set the Truncation Length to virtually any number of chips you want. If you set it to 250, the sequence will start over after the first 250 chips -- the last 5 chips will never be generated. But if you set the truncation length to 260, all 255 chips will be generated, followed naturally by the first 5 chips, after which the sequence will start over. In this case the first 5 chips are generated twice-in-a-row for each period. (Truncation Length is also known as the Sequence Length or LRS Length.)

As for what truncated and appended codes are used for, we haven't the slightest idea! But because the Department of Defense (DOD), National Security Agency (NSA), and other government agencies insist on having these features available, we can only assume there must be something useful about them. Our guess is that even some of our civilian customers know how to use these features to their advantage, but are careful not to disclose their knowledge as this might benefit their competitors.

What exactly is Burst Mode and how is it used?

Normally a PN sequence will run indefinitely and is periodic in nature. But when one of our generators is set to Burst Mode, this will no longer be the case. Instead, the PN sequence will run for precisely one period and then stop. To trigger (start) the burst, you press the Run button on the front panel. Alternatively, you can trigger the burst on the rising edge of a TTL-level pulse applied to the Run input port on the rear panel.

Note that the burst length can be set to an arbitrary number of chips, if so desired. The number of chips in the burst is determined by the Truncation Length setting of the generator. (Also known as the Sequence Length or LRS Length.)

How do your generators derive the I and Q signals for QPSK applications?

You can select one of two ways. The first, and most commonly used, is where the I output takes the odd chips from the PN sequence, and the Q output takes the even chips. Thus, there are two chips (bits) per QPSK symbol. As would be expected, the I and Q outputs are updated simultaneously, every other clock cycle. (Unless OQPSK modulation is selected, in which case the I and Q outputs are updated on alternate clock cycles. This is the definition of OQPSK.)

The second method is available only with generators having dual PN generators. In this method, the I output is provided by one of the generators, and the Q output is provided by the other.

How are the "Various High-Speed TTL I/O Ports for Precision Control" used?

These are ports that duplicate functions available to the user on the front panel. For the most part, these ports aren't necessary for normal operation, but may come in handy for special applications.

Nevertheless, two of the ports are commonly used and are very handy. The Epoch output port outputs a pulse whenever the PN sequence begins to repeat itself. This can be used to trigger an oscilloscope when observing the sequence on the scope. The other is the Run input port, which can be used to trigger a burst of chips when Burst Mode is selected.

The remaining I/O control ports operate as follows: A rising-edge on the Preset input port will stop the shift register and load it with the Initial Fill (a.k.a. Preset Code), as set by the user. A rising edge on the Run input port will start the shift register, or stop it if it is already running.

In direct sequence applications, the user may apply a data source to the Data input port, and this is modulo-2 added with the PN sequence to produce the direct sequence output. If the Data Defeat input port is asserted (pulled low), the data input is "turned off" so that only the PN sequence will be output. If the PN Defeat input port is asserted (pulled low), the PN sequence is "turned off" so that only the data will be output.

How do I use the Master/Slave feature of your generators to maintain code synchronization between two or more generators?

Two or more of our generators can be connected in a master/slave configuration that is designed to maintain perfect synchronization between the generators' PN sequences. The most obvious use of this feature is in transmitter/receiver applications. But the feature can be useful in other applications as well, such as creating Gold codes from the outputs of multiple generators, or doing cross-correlation studies on two sequences.

Let's suppose you wish to keep just two generators synchronized. Simply connect three special Master/Slave Output ports on the master generator to three special Master/Slave Input ports on the slave generator. One of these connections passes the clock signal from the master to the slave. So only once clock source is used in the setup, and it is connected to the master generator. The other two connections are used to keep the two PN sequences in phase.

Once the master/slave connections are made, the two generators are easily kept synchronized. Just be sure to use the master to control both generators. For example, use the Preset button on the master to load the initial contents of both generator's shift registers. And use the Run button on the master to start or stop both generators. If you must make a setting change on both generators, like the feedback taps, just do so on the slave first. When you make the corresponding change on the master, it will automatically re-synchronize the slave. (If you want to change a setting on the slave only, simply preset the master afterward to re-synchronize the two.)

What is a double-balanced mixer/modulator, and how do I connect it to the PN sequence generator?

A double-balanced mixer is a passive device that multiplies signals applied to two of its port and outputs the result on its third port. It is a conceptually simple device, consisting of only two tiny transformers and four diodes connected in a cathode-to-anode ring configuration. The fascinating thing about double-balanced mixers is that you can choose any two of the ports to be inputs, and the third automatically assumes the role of output.

However, double-balanced mixers are optimized to work best when connected in a specific way. As a mixer, the two transformer-coupled ports are typically designed to be driven by the RF and LO (local oscillator), with the IF (intermediate frequency) output taken from the diode-connected port. (By "diode-connected" we mean the port that connects to the diodes without transformer isolation.) As a digital modulator, one of the transformer-coupled ports is driven by the RF carrier, the output is taken from the other transformer-coupled port, and the diode-connected port is driven by the binary stream.

Our PN sequence generators have an AC-coupled output port that is designed to drive a double-balanced mixer. (Actually it has two such output ports, I and Q. But only the I port is used for BPSK modulation.) Simply connect the AC output of the generator to the IF input of the mixer, with a 50 ohm in-line (series) termination resistor at the generator end of the cable, and an in-line current limiting resistor (about 50 ohms) at the mixer end of the cable. For the carrier, connect the RF source to the RF input of the mixer. The LO port outputs the resulting BPSK signal.

Generating a QPSK signal is very similar, but uses both the I & Q AC outputs of the generator, and requires a QPSK (or I&Q) mixer/modulator. Both connections from the generator require the termination and current-limiting resistors.

Mini-Circuits and other vendors sell double-balanced mixer/modulators for typically under $200. Pomona Electronics, Pasternack Enterprises, and other vendors sell in-line series resistors for around $15 each.

What is carrier imbalance and how can I correct it?

In an ideal world, the carrier of an m-sequence modulated PSK signal would be suppressed to a level below that of the main lobe. Specifically, it would be suppressed by 10 log(N) dB, where N is the period of (number of chips in) the PN sequence. (If the sequence isn't an m-sequence, carrier suppression isn't guaranteed.)

In the real world, however, ideal suppression doesn't occur for a number of reasons. For example, there will always be a certain amount of carrier feed-through in a real mixer. Regardless of the cause, degradation of carrier suppression is referred to as carrier imbalance. If sufficiently degraded, the carrier level may actually exceed that of the main spectral lobe.

It is interesting to note that a small degree of carrier imbalance may add destructively with the natural carrier component, thus actually improving carrier suppression. Nevertheless, this is still considered a carrier imbalance.

Any unnatural DC bias in a PN sequence will contribute to carrier imbalance. (A natural DC bias will always be present due to the fact that the number of ones in an m-sequence always exceeds the number of zeros by one within each period. This accounts for the fact that the carrier is merely suppressed, but not eliminated, with m-sequences.) So, with DC coupled drivers, the DC offset must be carefully controlled.

With AC coupled drivers, as provided by our generators, all DC bias is removed, both natural and unnatural, thus resulting in no carrier component whatsoever, not even the expected suppressed carrier. Fortunately, while this is considered a form of carrier imbalance, it is usually of no concern since lack of a carrier component is often the desired case. Still, there are ways of correcting this if so desired.

The easiest way of correcting carrier imbalance is by adjusting the DC offset of the PN signal where it enters the mixer. This is readily accomplished by inserting a bias T on the input port of the mixer and applying an adjustable DC bias voltage. Simply tweak the voltage until the desired carrier component is observed. Keep in mind that a positive voltage will emulate an extra 1 chip, whereas a negative voltage will emulate an extra 0 chip.

Unfortunately, this technique has a side effect. Because of the inequality between the rise and fall times of the PN signal, a code imbalance will likely be introduced, and will manifest itself by spectral lines appearing in the nulls of the PN signal's frequency spectrum. If the amplitude of these lines is acceptable, then all is well. If not, another approach involving the use of a pulse generator may need to be used in removing both carrier and code imbalances. Refer to the FAQ on code imbalance for more information.

What is code imbalance and how can I correct it?

Code imbalance is a condition that can occur when PSK modulating a carrier with a PN signal that has certain types of distortion. The primary cause of the imbalance is due to the fact that rise and fall times in the PN signal are generally unequal and nonuniform. Code imbalance is manifested by spectral lines appearing in the nulls of the PSK signal's frequency spectrum. Under ideal conditions the nulls would be perfectly suppressed.

There are other, typically less prominent, causes of spectral components in the nulls. At higher chip rates, ripples in a PN signal will often occur as a result of driving the non-linear input of a balanced mixer. For example, with our generators there is a ripple of about 5% present in the PN signal at 20 MHz chip rates. These ripples tend to spread a small percentage of the power from the spectral lobes into the null regions.

A small degree of code imbalance is often not a concern in practical spread spectrum systems. And, in fact, shaping filters can substantially reduce the spectral components found in the nulls. But in critical cases, for example when spectral lines would defeat the purpose of signal hiding (one of the uses of spread spectrum), the presence of spectral lines in the nulls is unacceptable and so must be corrected.

So how does one eliminate code imbalance? Ironically, the very cause of the problem can be exploited to correct the problem. As previously mentioned, the prominent cause is the difference in rise and fall times of the PN signal. This phenomenon effectively makes the ones in the PN sequence either longer or shorter than the zeros. The simplest method of eliminating this imbalance is by adding a small DC bias to the PN signal, through the use of a bias tee, at the code input of the mixer. Simply adjust the voltage until the spectral lines disappear.

Unfortunately, this technique has a side effect. The added DC bias will introduce a carrier imbalance, which manifests itself with a spectral line at the carrier frequency. If the level of this line is acceptable, then all is well. Often, however, having a spectral line at the carrier frequency is just as bad as having them in the nulls.

The good news is that there is a straightforward way of virtually eliminating both code and carrier imbalances in one step, as well as significantly improving amplitude distortions in the PN signal. Many high-quality pulse generators have a mode of operation where the output follows the input. Depending upon the model, the name of the mode will be something like pulse follower mode. In this mode the generator's output simply follows the input. But the output of the generator will be very clean, and adjustments can be made to eliminate code and carrier imbalances. To remove code imbalance, tweak the input trigger level of the generator. To remove carrier imbalance, tweak the output offset level. You also have the luxury of being able to adjust the output amplitude level as well as the rise/fall times, if so desired, to optimize mixer driving characteristics.

Looking at a PSK modulated signal, my spectrum analyzer reveals a low carrier spectral line, much lower in magnitude than what theory would suggest. What is causing this and how can I correct it?

The AC output of our generators has a DC blocking capacitor that removes all DC bias from the PN sequence. This effectively removes the carrier component of the spread spectrum signal. Refer to the FAQ on carrier imbalance for more information, including methods for restoring the carrier component.

Looking at a PSK modulated signal, my spectrum analyzer reveals a spectral line in the middle of the main lobe, right at the carrier frequency. What is causing this and how can I correct it?

If the sequence you are using is non-maximal (i.e. not an m-sequence), the code may be highly imbalanced (a lot more ones than zeros, or vice-versa), which can cause a significant carrier component to appear. This is normal.

But if the sequence is an m-sequence, you may have a defective mixer. Or you may be connecting the generator to the mixer incorrectly. Refer to the FAQ on mixer connections for instructions on driving a double-balanced mixer.

If you still have a problem after confirming correct mixer setup, and you're sure you are generating an m-sequence, the problem may be due to carrier imbalance. Refer to the FAQ on carrier imbalance for more information.

Looking at a PSK modulated signal, my spectrum analyzer reveals spectral lines in the nulls of the frequency spectrum. What is causing this and how can I correct it?

You may have a defective mixer, or you may be connecting the generator to the mixer incorrectly. Refer to the FAQ on mixer connections for instructions on driving a double-balanced mixer.

If you still have a problem after confirming correct mixer setup, the problem may be due to code imbalance. Refer to the FAQ on code imbalance for more information.

Looking at a PSK modulated signal, my oscilloscope reveals ripples in the envelope of the signal. What is causing this and how can I correct it?

If the chip rate is high (>5 MHz) and the ripple is about +/- 5% or less, this is to be expected. The distortion is a result of the non-linearity of the code input port of the mixer.

While this distortion is of little consequence in many situations, in others it may be unacceptable. Refer to the FAQ on code imbalance for more information regarding the consequence of this distortion, and for a technique to correct it.

If the ripple is greater than +/-5%, or occurs even at low chip rates (<2 MHz), you may be connecting the generator to the mixer incorrectly. Refer to the FAQ on mixer connections for instructions on driving a double-balanced mixer.